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| Tchaikovsky's training set him on a path to reconcile what he had learned with the native musical practices to which he had been exposed from childhood. From that reconciliation, he forged a personal but unmistakably Russian style. The principles that governed melody, harmony and other fundamentals of Russian music ran completely counter to those that governed Western European music, which seemed to defeat the potential for using Russian music in large-scale Western composition or for forming a composite style, and it caused personal antipathies that dented Tchaikovsky's self-confidence. Russian culture exhibited a split personality, with its native and adopted elements having drifted apart increasingly since the time of [[Peter the Great]]. That resulted in uncertainty among the [[intelligentsia]] about the country's national identity, an ambiguity mirrored in Tchaikovsky's career. | | Tchaikovsky's training set him on a path to reconcile what he had learned with the native musical practices to which he had been exposed from childhood. From that reconciliation, he forged a personal but unmistakably Russian style. The principles that governed melody, harmony and other fundamentals of Russian music ran completely counter to those that governed Western European music, which seemed to defeat the potential for using Russian music in large-scale Western composition or for forming a composite style, and it caused personal antipathies that dented Tchaikovsky's self-confidence. Russian culture exhibited a split personality, with its native and adopted elements having drifted apart increasingly since the time of [[Peter the Great]]. That resulted in uncertainty among the [[intelligentsia]] about the country's national identity, an ambiguity mirrored in Tchaikovsky's career. |
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| Despite his many popular successes, Tchaikovsky's life was punctuated by personal crises and depression. Contributory factors included his early separation from his mother for boarding school followed by his mother's early death; the death of his close friend and colleague [[Nikolai Rubinstein]]; and the collapse of the one enduring relationship of his adult life, his 13-year association with the wealthy widow [[Nadezhda von Meck]], who was his [[patron]] even though they never actually met each other. His homosexuality, which he kept private, has traditionally also been considered a major factor though some musicologists now downplay its importance. Tchaikovsky's sudden death at the age of 53 is generally ascribed to [[cholera]]; there is an ongoing debate as to whether cholera was indeed the [[death of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|cause of his death]]. | | Despite his many popular successes, Tchaikovsky's life was punctuated by personal crises and depression. Contributory factors included his early separation from his mother for boarding school followed by his mother's early death; the death of his close friend and colleague [[Nikolai Rubinstein]]; and the collapse of the one enduring relationship of his adult life, his 13-year association with the wealthy widow [[Nadezhda von Meck]], who was his [[patron]] even though they never actually met each other. Tchaikovsky's sudden death at the age of 53 is generally ascribed to [[cholera]]; there is an ongoing debate as to whether cholera was indeed the [[death of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|cause of his death]]. |
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| While his music has remained popular among audiences, critical opinions were initially mixed. Some Russians did not feel it was sufficiently representative of native musical values and expressed suspicion that Europeans accepted the music for its Western elements. In an apparent reinforcement of the latter claim, some Europeans lauded Tchaikovsky for offering music more substantive than base [[exoticism]] and said he transcended stereotypes of Russian classical music. Others dismissed Tchaikovsky's music as "lacking in elevated thought"<ref>According to longtime ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' music critic [[Harold C. Schonberg]].</ref> and derided its formal workings as deficient because they did not stringently follow Western principles. | | While his music has remained popular among audiences, critical opinions were initially mixed. Some Russians did not feel it was sufficiently representative of native musical values and expressed suspicion that Europeans accepted the music for its Western elements. In an apparent reinforcement of the latter claim, some Europeans lauded Tchaikovsky for offering music more substantive than base [[exoticism]] and said he transcended stereotypes of Russian classical music. Others dismissed Tchaikovsky's music as "lacking in elevated thought"<ref>According to longtime ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' music critic [[Harold C. Schonberg]].</ref> and derided its formal workings as deficient because they did not stringently follow Western principles. |
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| ==Life==
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| ===Childhood===
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| {{multiple image|direction=vertical|image1=Дом Чайковского.jpg |alt1=A peach-colored prune-tiled three-story house with single-story aisles surrounded by trees |caption1=Tchaikovsky's birthplace in Votkinsk, now [[Tchaikovsky Museum (Votkinsk)|a museum]] |image2=Tchaikovskys family in 1848 From left to right sitting Alexandra Andreevna Tchaikovska Alexandra Ippolit Ilya Petrovitch Tchai Family 2.jpg |caption2=The Tchaikovsky family in 1848. Left to right: Pyotr, Alexandra Andreyevna (mother), Alexandra (sister), Zinaida, Nikolai, Ippolit, Ilya Petrovich (father)}} | | {{multiple image|direction=vertical|image1=Дом Чайковского.jpg |alt1=A peach-colored prune-tiled three-story house with single-story aisles surrounded by trees |caption1=Tchaikovsky's birthplace in Votkinsk, now [[Tchaikovsky Museum (Votkinsk)|a museum]] |image2=Tchaikovskys family in 1848 From left to right sitting Alexandra Andreevna Tchaikovska Alexandra Ippolit Ilya Petrovitch Tchai Family 2.jpg |caption2=The Tchaikovsky family in 1848. Left to right: Pyotr, Alexandra Andreyevna (mother), Alexandra (sister), Zinaida, Nikolai, Ippolit, Ilya Petrovich (father)}} |
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| Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky was born in [[Votkinsk]], a small town in [[Vyatka Governorate]] (present-day [[Udmurtia]]) in the [[Russian Empire]], into a family with a long history of military service. His father, Ilya Petrovich Tchaikovsky, had served as a lieutenant colonel and engineer in the Department of Mines,<ref name="holden4">Holden, 4.</ref> and would manage the [[Votkinsk|Kamsko-Votkinsk]] Ironworks. His grandfather, Pyotr Fedorovich Tchaikovsky (né Petro Fedorovych Chaika), was born in the village of Mikolayivka, Poltava Gubernia, Russian Empire (present day Ukraine),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://en.tchaikovsky-research.net/pages/Tchaikovsky:_A_Life|title=Tchaikovsky: A Life|website=tchaikovsky-research.net}}</ref> and served first as a physician's assistant in the army and later as city governor of [[Glazov]] in Vyatka. His great-grandfather,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://day.kyiv.ua/en/article/culture/pyotr-tchaikovsky-ukrainian-creative-spirit|title=Pyotr Tchaikovsky, a Ukrainian by creative spirit|work=[[The Day (Kiev)|The Day]]|location=Kiev}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=AFcABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&dq=fedor+chaika#v=onepage&q=fedor%20chaika&f=false|title=Tchaikovsky and His World|isbn=9781400864881|last=Kearney|first=Leslie|year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> a [[Cossacks|Cossack]] named Fyodor Chaika, distinguished himself under [[Peter the Great]] at the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709.<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 19</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Poznansky|first1=Alexander|title=Tchaikovsky Through Others' Eyes|date=1999|page=1}}</ref>
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| Tchaikovsky's mother, Alexandra Andreyevna (née d'Assier), was the second of Ilya's three wives, 18 years her husband's junior and French and German on her father's side.<ref>Poznansky, ''Eyes'', 1; Holden, 5.</ref> Both Ilya and Alexandra were trained in the arts, including music—a necessity as a posting to a remote area of Russia also meant a need for entertainment, whether in private or at social gatherings.<ref name="wiley_tchaik6">Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 6.</ref> Of his six siblings,<ref group="a">Tchaikovsky had four brothers (Nikolai, Ippolit, Anatoly and Modest), a sister (Alexandra) and a half-sister (Zinaida) from his father's first marriage (Holden, 6, 13; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 18). Anatoly would later have a prominent legal career, while Modest became a dramatist, [[librettist]], and translator (Poznansky, ''Eyes'', 2).</ref> Tchaikovsky was close to his sister Alexandra and twin brothers Anatoly and [[Modest Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Modest]]. Alexandra's marriage to Lev Davydov<ref>Holden, 31.</ref> would produce seven children<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://en.tchaikovsky-research.net/pages/Aleksandra_Davydova|title=Aleksandra Davydova|website=en.tchaikovsky-research.net}}</ref> and lend Tchaikovsky the only real family life he would know as an adult,<ref name="holden43" /> especially during his years of wandering.<ref name="holden43">Holden, 43.</ref> One of those children, [[Vladimir Davydov]], whom the composer would nickname 'Bob', would become very close to him.<ref>Holden, 202.</ref>
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| In 1844, the family hired Fanny Dürbach, a 22-year-old French governess.<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 22; Holden, 7.</ref> Four-and-a-half-year-old Tchaikovsky was initially thought too young to study alongside his older brother Nikolai and a niece of the family. His insistence convinced Dürbach otherwise.<ref>Holden, 7.</ref> By the age of six, he had become fluent in French and German.<ref name="wiley_tchaik6"/> Tchaikovsky also became attached to the young woman; her affection for him was reportedly a counter to his mother's coldness and emotional distance from him,<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 27; Holden, 6–8</ref> though others assert that the mother doted on her son.<ref>Poznansky, ''Quest'', 5.</ref> Dürbach saved much of Tchaikovsky's work from this period, including his earliest known compositions, and became a source of several childhood anecdotes.<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 25–26; Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 7.</ref>
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| Tchaikovsky began piano lessons at age five. Precocious, within three years he had become as adept at reading sheet music as his teacher. His parents, initially supportive, hired a tutor, bought an [[orchestrion]] (a form of barrel organ that could imitate elaborate orchestral effects), and encouraged his piano study for both aesthetic and practical reasons.
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| However, they decided in 1850 to send Tchaikovsky to the [[Imperial School of Jurisprudence]] in Saint Petersburg. They had both graduated from institutes in Saint Petersburg and the School of Jurisprudence, which mainly served the lesser nobility, and thought that this education would prepare Tchaikovsky for a career as a civil servant.<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 31; Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 8.</ref> Regardless of talent, the only musical careers available in Russia at that time—except for the affluent aristocracy—were as a teacher in an academy or as an instrumentalist in one of the Imperial Theaters. Both were considered on the lowest rank of the social ladder, with individuals in them enjoying no more rights than peasants.<ref>Maes, 33.</ref>
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| His father's income was also growing increasingly uncertain, so both parents may have wanted Tchaikovsky to become independent as soon as possible.<ref>Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 8.</ref> As the minimum age for acceptance was 12 and Tchaikovsky was only 10 at the time, he was required to spend two years boarding at the Imperial School of Jurisprudence's preparatory school, {{convert|800|mi|km|order=flip}} from his family.<ref>Holden, 14; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 26.</ref> Once those two years had passed, Tchaikovsky transferred to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence to begin a seven-year course of studies.<ref>Holden, 20.</ref>
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| [[File:Uchilische pravovedenia.jpg|thumb|alt=A row of large, stone three-storey buildings alongside a large riverbank|Modern view of the [[Imperial School of Jurisprudence]], Saint Petersburg]]
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| Tchaikovsky's early separation from his mother caused an emotional trauma that lasted the rest of his life and was intensified by her death from [[cholera]] in 1854, when he was fourteen.<ref>Holden, 15; Poznansky, ''Quest'', 11–12.</ref><ref group=a>Her death affected him so much that he could not inform Fanny Dürbach until two years later (Brown, ''Early'', 47; Holden, 23.; Warrack, 29). More than 25 years after his loss, Tchaikovsky wrote to his patroness, Nadezhda von Meck, "Every moment of that appalling day is as vivid to me as though it were yesterday" (As quoted in Holden, 23)</ref> The loss of his mother also prompted Tchaikovsky to make his first serious attempt at composition, a [[Waltz (music)|waltz]] in her memory. Tchaikovsky's father, who had also contracted cholera but recovered fully, sent him back to school immediately in the hope that classwork would occupy the boy's mind.<ref name="holden23">Holden, 23.</ref> Isolated, Tchaikovsky compensated with friendships with fellow students that became lifelong; these included [[Aleksey Apukhtin]] and Vladimir Gerard.<ref>Holden, 23–24, 26; Poznansky, ''Quest'', 32–37; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 30.</ref>
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| Music, while not an official priority at school, also bridged the gap between Tchaikovsky and his peers. They regularly attended the opera<ref>Holden, 24; Poznansky, ''Quest'', 26</ref> and Tchaikovsky would improvise at the school's [[Pump organ|harmonium]] on themes he and his friends had sung during choir practice. "We were amused," Vladimir Gerard later remembered, "but not imbued with any expectations of his future glory".<ref>As quoted in Holden, 25.</ref> Tchaikovsky also continued his piano studies through Franz Becker, an instrument manufacturer who made occasional visits to the school; however, the results, according to musicologist [[David Brown (musicologist)|David Brown]], were "negligible".<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 43.</ref>
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| In 1855, Tchaikovsky's father funded private lessons with Rudolph Kündinger and questioned him about a musical career for his son. While impressed with the boy's talent, Kündinger said he saw nothing to suggest a future composer or performer.<ref>Holden, 24–25; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 31.</ref> He later admitted that his assessment was also based on his own negative experiences as a musician in Russia and his unwillingness for Tchaikovsky to be treated likewise.<ref>Poznansky, ''Eyes'', 17.</ref> Tchaikovsky was told to finish his course and then try for a post in the Ministry of Justice.<ref>Holden, 25; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 31.</ref>
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| ===Civil service; pursuing music===
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| [[File:Youngtchaik.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A clean-shaven man in his teens wearing a dress shirt, tie and dark jacket.|Tchaikovsky as a student at the Moscow Conservatory. Photo, 1863]]
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| On 10 June 1859, the 19-year-old Tchaikovsky graduated as a titular counselor, a low rung on the civil service ladder. Appointed to the Ministry of Justice, he became a junior assistant within six months and a senior assistant two months after that. He remained a senior assistant for the rest of his three-year civil service career.<ref>Brown, ''Man and Music'', 14.</ref>
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| Meanwhile, the [[Russian Musical Society]] (RMS) was founded in 1859 by the [[Princess Charlotte of Württemberg|Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna]] (a German-born aunt of [[Tsar]] [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]) and her protégé, pianist and composer [[Anton Rubinstein]]. Previous tsars and the aristocracy had focused almost exclusively on importing European talent.<ref>Maes, 31.</ref> The aim of the RMS was to fulfill Alexander II's wish to foster native talent.<ref>Maes, 35.</ref> It hosted a regular season of public concerts (previously held only during the six weeks of [[Lent]] when the Imperial Theaters were closed)<ref>Volkov, 71.</ref> and provided basic professional training in music.<ref>Maes, 35; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 36.</ref> In 1861, Tchaikovsky attended RMS classes in [[music theory]] taught by [[Nikolai Zaremba]] at the [[Mikhailovsky Palace]] (now the [[Russian Museum]]).<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 60</ref> These classes were a precursor to the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, which opened in 1862. Tchaikovsky enrolled at the Conservatory as part of its premiere class. He studied [[harmony]] and [[counterpoint]] with Zaremba and instrumentation and composition with Rubinstein.<ref>Brown, ''Man and Music'', 20; Holden, 38–39; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 36–38.</ref>
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| The Conservatory benefited Tchaikovsky in two ways. It transformed him into a musical professional, with tools to help him thrive as a composer, and the in-depth exposure to European principles and musical forms gave him a sense that his art was not exclusively Russian or Western.<ref name="taruskin_go4663">Taruskin, ''Grove Opera'', 4:663–64.</ref> This mindset became important in Tchaikovsky's reconciliation of Russian and European influences in his compositional style. He believed and attempted to show that both these aspects were "intertwined and mutually dependent".<ref>Figes, xxxii; Volkov, 111–12.</ref> His efforts became both an inspiration and a starting point for other Russian composers to build their own individual styles.<ref>Hosking, 347.</ref>
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| [[File:Rubinstein N & A Postcard-1910.jpg|thumb|Anton (right) and Nikolai Rubinstein]] | | [[File:Rubinstein N & A Postcard-1910.jpg|thumb|Anton (right) and Nikolai Rubinstein]] |
| Rubinstein was impressed by Tchaikovsky's musical talent on the whole and cited him as "a composer of genius" in his autobiography.<ref>Poznansky, ''Eyes'', 47–48; Rubinstein, 110.</ref> He was less pleased with the more progressive tendencies of some of Tchaikovsky's student work.<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 76; Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 35.</ref> Nor did he change his opinion as Tchaikovsky's reputation grew.<ref group=a>Tchaikovsky ascribed Rubinstein's coolness to a difference in musical temperaments. Rubinstein could have been jealous professionally of Tchaikovsky's greater impact as a composer. [[Homophobia]] might have been another factor (Poznansky, ''Eyes'', 29).</ref><ref group=a>An exception to Rubinstein's antipathy was the ''[[Serenade for Strings (Tchaikovsky)|Serenade for Strings]]'', which he declared "Tchaikovsky's best piece" when he heard it in rehearsal. "At last this St. Petersburg pundit, who had growled with such consistent disapproval at Tchaikovsky's successive compositions, had found a work by his former pupil which he could endorse," according to Tchaikovsky biographer [[David Brown (musicologist)|David Brown]] (Brown, ''Wandering'', 121).</ref> He and Zaremba clashed with Tchaikovsky when he submitted his [[Symphony No. 1 (Tchaikovsky)|First Symphony]] for performance by the [[Russian Musical Society]] in Saint Petersburg. Rubinstein and Zaremba refused to consider the work unless substantial changes were made. Tchaikovsky complied but they still refused to perform the symphony.<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 100–01.</ref> Tchaikovsky, distressed that he had been treated as though he were still their student, withdrew the symphony. It was given its first complete performance, minus the changes Rubinstein and Zaremba had requested, in Moscow in February 1868.<ref>Brown, ''New Grove'', 18:608.</ref>
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| Once Tchaikovsky graduated in 1865, Rubinstein's brother [[Nikolai Rubinstein|Nikolai]] offered him the post of Professor of Music Theory at the soon-to-open [[Moscow Conservatory]]. While the salary for his professorship was only 50 [[Russian ruble|rubles]] a month, the offer itself boosted Tchaikovsky's morale and he accepted the post eagerly. He was further heartened by news of the first public performance of one of his works, his ''Characteristic Dances'', conducted by [[Johann Strauss II]] at a concert in [[Pavlovsk Park]] on 11 September 1865 (Tchaikovsky later included this work, re-titled ''Dances of the Hay Maidens'', in his opera ''[[The Voyevoda (opera)|The Voyevoda]]'').<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 82–83.</ref>
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| From 1867 to 1878, Tchaikovsky combined his professorial duties with [[Music journalism|music criticism]] while continuing to compose.<ref>Holden, 83; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 61.</ref> This activity exposed him to a range of contemporary music and afforded him the opportunity to travel abroad.<ref>Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 87.</ref> In his reviews, he praised [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], considered [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]] overrated and, despite his admiration, took [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]] to task for poor orchestration.<ref>Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 79.</ref><ref group=a>His critique led Tchaikovsky to consider rescoring Schumann's symphonies, a project he never realized (Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 79).</ref> He appreciated the staging of [[Richard Wagner|Wagner's]] ''[[Der Ring des Nibelungen]]'' at its inaugural performance in [[Bayreuth]] (Germany), but not the music, calling ''[[Das Rheingold]]'' "unlikely nonsense, through which, from time to time, sparkle unusually beautiful and astonishing details".<ref>As quoted in Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 95.</ref> A recurring theme he addressed was the poor state of [[Russian opera]].<ref>Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 77.</ref>
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| ====Relationship with The Five==== | | ====Relationship with The Five==== |
| {{see also|Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and The Five}} | | {{see also|Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and The Five}} |
| [[File:Balakirev from 1914 Windsor Magazine.png|thumb|upright|alt=A man in his late 20s or early 30s with dark hair and a bushy beard, wearing a dark coat, dress shirt and tie.|The young [[Mily Balakirev]]]] | | [[File:Balakirev from 1914 Windsor Magazine.png|thumb|upright|alt=A man in his late 20s or early 30s with dark hair and a bushy beard, wearing a dark coat, dress shirt and tie.|The young [[Mily Balakirev]]]] |
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| In 1856, while Tchaikovsky was still at the School of Jurisprudence and Anton Rubinstein lobbied aristocrats to form the [[Russian Musical Society]], critic [[Vladimir Stasov]] and an 18-year-old pianist, [[Mily Balakirev]], met and agreed upon a [[musical nationalism|nationalist]] agenda for Russian music, one that would take the operas of [[Mikhail Glinka]] as a model and incorporate elements from folk music, reject traditional Western practices and use non-Western harmonic devices such as the [[whole tone scale|whole tone]] and [[octatonic scale]]s.<ref>Figes, 178–81.</ref> They saw Western-style conservatories as unnecessary and antipathetic to fostering native talent.<ref>Maes, 8–9; Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 27.</ref>
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| Eventually, Balakirev, [[César Cui]], [[Modest Mussorgsky]], [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]] and [[Alexander Borodin]] became known as the ''moguchaya kuchka'', translated into English as the "Mighty Handful" or [[The Five (composers)|"The Five"]].<ref>Garden, ''New Grove (2001)'', 8:913.</ref> Rubinstein criticized their emphasis on amateur efforts in musical composition; Balakirev and later Mussorgsky attacked Rubinstein for his musical conservatism and his belief in professional music training.<ref>Maes, 39.</ref> Tchaikovsky and his fellow conservatory students were caught in the middle.<ref>Maes, 42.</ref>
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| While ambivalent about much of The Five's music, Tchaikovsky remained on friendly terms with most of its members.<ref>Maes, 49.</ref> In 1869, he and Balakirev worked together on what became Tchaikovsky's first recognized masterpiece, the fantasy-overture ''[[Romeo and Juliet (Tchaikovsky)|Romeo and Juliet]]'', a work which The Five wholeheartedly embraced.<ref>Brown, ''Man and Music'', 49.</ref> The group also welcomed his [[Symphony No. 2 (Tchaikovsky)|Second Symphony]], subtitled the ''Little Russian''.<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 255.</ref> Despite their support, Tchaikovsky made considerable efforts to ensure his musical independence from the group as well as from the conservative faction at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory.<ref>Holden, 51–52.</ref>
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| ====Growing fame; budding opera composer==== | | ====Growing fame; budding opera composer==== |
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| | title = Piano Concerto No.1 in B-flat minor Op.23 – I. Allegro | | | title = Piano Concerto No.1 in B-flat minor Op.23 – I. Allegro |
| | description = ''Allegro non-troppo e molto maestoso – Allegro con spirito'' from Tchaikovsky's [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Tchaikovsky)|First Piano Concerto]]}} | | | description = ''Allegro non-troppo e molto maestoso – Allegro con spirito'' from Tchaikovsky's [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Tchaikovsky)|First Piano Concerto]]}} |
| The infrequency of Tchaikovsky's musical successes, won with tremendous effort, exacerbated his lifelong sensitivity to criticism. Nikolai Rubinstein's private fits of rage critiquing his music, such as attacking the [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Tchaikovsky)|First Piano Concerto]], did not help matters.<ref name="wiley25147"/> His popularity grew, however, as several first-rate artists became willing to perform his compositions. [[Hans von Bülow]] premiered the First Piano Concerto and championed other Tchaikovsky works both as pianist and conductor.<ref>Steinberg, ''Concerto'', 474–76; Wiley, ''New Grove (2001)'', 25:161.</ref> Other artists included [[Adele Aus der Ohe]], [[Max Erdmannsdörfer]], [[Eduard Nápravník]] and [[Sergei Taneyev]].
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| [[File:Hans von buelow.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A middle-aged, balding man with a mustache and small beard, wearing a dark suit and holding a cigarette.|The conductor [[Hans von Bülow]]]] | | [[File:Hans von buelow.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A middle-aged, balding man with a mustache and small beard, wearing a dark suit and holding a cigarette.|The conductor [[Hans von Bülow]]]] |
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| Another factor that helped Tchaikovsky's music become popular was a shift in attitude among Russian audiences. Whereas they had previously been satisfied with flashy virtuoso performances of technically demanding but musically lightweight compositions, they gradually began listening with increasing appreciation of the music itself. Tchaikovsky's works were performed frequently, with few delays between their composition and first performances; the publication from 1867 onward of his songs and great piano music for the home market also helped boost the composer's popularity.<ref>Wiley, ''New Grove (2001)'', 25:153–54.</ref>
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| During the late 1860s, Tchaikovsky began to compose operas. His first, ''[[The Voyevoda (opera)|The Voyevoda]]'', based on a play by [[Alexander Ostrovsky]], premiered in 1869. The composer became dissatisfied with it, however, and, having re-used parts of it in later works, destroyed the manuscript. ''[[Undina (Tchaikovsky)|Undina]]'' followed in 1870. Only excerpts were performed and it, too, was destroyed.<ref name="Taruskin 665">Taruskin, 665.</ref> Between these projects, Tchaikovsky started to compose an opera called ''Mandragora'', to a libretto by Sergei Rachinskii; the only music he completed was a short chorus of Flowers and Insects.<ref>Holden, 75–76; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 58–59.</ref>
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| The first Tchaikovsky opera to survive intact, ''[[The Oprichnik]]'', premiered in 1874. During its composition, he lost Ostrovsky's part-finished libretto. Tchaikovsky, too embarrassed to ask for another copy, decided to write the libretto himself, modelling his dramatic technique on that of [[Eugène Scribe]]. Cui wrote a "characteristically savage press attack" on the opera. Mussorgsky, writing to [[Vladimir Stasov]], disapproved of the opera as pandering to the public. Nevertheless, ''The Oprichnik'' continues to be performed from time to time in Russia.<ref name="Taruskin 665"/>
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| The last of the early operas, ''[[Vakula the Smith]]'' (Op.14), was composed in the second half of 1874. The libretto, based on [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]]'s ''[[Christmas Eve (Gogol)|Christmas Eve]]'', was to have been set to music by [[Alexander Serov]]. With Serov's death, the libretto was opened to a competition with a guarantee that the winning entry would be premiered by the [[Imperial Mariinsky Theatre]]. Tchaikovsky was declared the winner, but at the 1876 premiere, the opera enjoyed only a lukewarm reception.<ref>Brown, ''Viking'', 1086.</ref> After Tchaikovsky's death, Rimsky-Korsakov wrote the opera ''[[Christmas Eve (opera)|Christmas Eve]]'', based on the same story.<ref>Maes, 171.</ref>
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| Other works of this period include the ''[[Variations on a Rococo Theme]]'' for cello and orchestra, the [[Symphony No. 3 (Tchaikovsky)|Third]] and [[Symphony No. 4 (Tchaikovsky)|Fourth Symphonies]], the ballet ''[[Swan Lake]]'', and the opera ''[[Eugene Onegin (opera)|Eugene Onegin]]''.
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| ===Personal life===
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| [[File:Tchaikovsky with wife Antonina Miliukova.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A middle aged man with dark hair and a beard, wearing a dark suit and holding a book, sits next to a young woman in a black dress wearing her hair up on her head|Tchaikovsky and Antonina on their honeymoon, 1877]] | | [[File:Tchaikovsky with wife Antonina Miliukova.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A middle aged man with dark hair and a beard, wearing a dark suit and holding a book, sits next to a young woman in a black dress wearing her hair up on her head|Tchaikovsky and Antonina on their honeymoon, 1877]] |
| [[File:Kotek iosif.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|[[Iosif Kotek]] (left) and Tchaikovsky (right), 1877]] | | [[File:Kotek iosif.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|[[Iosif Kotek]] (left) and Tchaikovsky (right), 1877]] |
| Discussion of Tchaikovsky's personal life, especially his sexuality, has perhaps been the most extensive of any composer in the 19th century and certainly of any Russian composer of his time.<ref>Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', xvi.</ref> It has also at times caused considerable confusion, from Soviet efforts to expunge all references to same-sex attraction and portray him as a heterosexual, to efforts at analysis by Western biographers.<ref>Maes, 133–34; Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', xvii.</ref>
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| Biographers have generally agreed that Tchaikovsky was homosexual.<ref>Poznansky, ''Quest'', all.</ref> He sought the company of other men in his circle for extended periods, "associating openly and establishing professional connections with them".<ref name="wiley25147">Wiley, ''New Grove (2001)'', 25:147.</ref> His first love was reportedly Sergey Kireyev, a younger fellow student at the Imperial School of Jurisprudence. According to Modest Tchaikovsky, this was Pyotr Ilyich's "strongest, longest and purest love". The degree to which the composer might have felt comfortable with his sexual desires has, however, remained open to debate. It is still unknown whether Tchaikovsky, according to musicologist and biographer [[David Brown (musicologist)|David Brown]], "felt tainted within himself, defiled by something from which he finally realized he could never escape"<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 50.</ref> or whether, according to Alexander Poznansky, he experienced "no unbearable guilt" over his sexual desires<ref name="wiley25147" /> and "eventually came to see his sexual peculiarities as an insurmountable and even natural part of his personality ... without experiencing any serious psychological damage".<ref>Poznansky, as quoted in Holden, 394.</ref>
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| Relevant portions of his brother Modest's autobiography, where he tells of the composer's same-sex attraction, have been published, as have letters previously suppressed by Soviet censors in which Tchaikovsky openly writes of it.<ref>Poznansky, ''Eyes'', 8, 24, 77, 82, 103–05, 165–68. Also see P.I. Chaikovskii. ''Al'manakh, vypusk 1'', (Moscow, 1995).</ref> Such censorship has persisted in the Russian government in 2013, resulting in many officials, including the former culture minister [[Vladimir Medinsky]], denying his homosexuality outright.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/sep/18/tchaikovsky-not-gay-russian-minister|title=Tchaikovsky was not gay, says Russian culture minister|last=Walker|first=Shaun|date=18 September 2013|work=The Guardian|access-date=21 April 2018}}</ref>
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| Passages in Tchaikovsky's letters which reveal his homosexual desires have been censored in Russia. In one such passage
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| he told of a homosexual acquaintance: "Petashenka used to drop by with the criminal intention of observing the Cadet Corps, which is right opposite our windows, but I've been trying to discourage these compromising visits – and with some success." In another one he wrote "After our walk, I offered him some money, which was refused. He does it for the love of art and adores men with beards."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/jun/02/tchaikovsky-letters-saved-from-censors-reveal-secret-loves-homosexuality|title=Tchaikovsky and the secret gay loves censors tried to hide|first=Dalya|last=Alberge|date=2 June 2018|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref>
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| Tchaikovsky lived as a bachelor for most of his life. In 1868 he met Belgian soprano [[Désirée Artôt]]. They became infatuated with each other and were engaged to be married,<ref>Brown, ''Early Years'', 156–57; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 53.</ref> but due to Artôt's refusal to give up the stage or settle in Russia, the relationship ended.<ref>Brown, ''Early'', 156–58; Poznansky, ''Eyes'', 88.</ref> Tchaikovsky later claimed she was the only woman he ever loved.<ref>{{cite web|title=Artôt, Désirée (1835–1907) |url=http://www.schubertiademusic.com/index.php?catalog=catalog-4 |publisher=Schubertiade music |accessdate=21 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624013042/http://www.schubertiademusic.com/index.php?catalog=catalog-4 |archivedate=24 June 2009 }}</ref> In 1877, at the age of 37, he wed a former student, [[Antonina Miliukova]].<ref name="marriage">Brown, ''Crisis'', 137–47; Polayansky, ''Quest'', 207–08, 219–20; Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 147–50.</ref> The marriage was a disaster. Mismatched psychologically and sexually,<ref name="wedding2">Brown, ''Crisis'', 146–48; Poznansky, ''Quest'', 234; Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 152.</ref> the couple lived together for only two and a half months before Tchaikovsky left, overwrought emotionally and suffering from acute [[writer's block]].<ref name="wedding3">Brown, ''Crisis'', 157; Poznansky, ''Quest'', 234; Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 155.</ref> Tchaikovsky's family remained supportive of him during this crisis and throughout his life.<ref>Wiley, ''New Grove'' (2001), 25:147.</ref>
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| He was also aided by [[Nadezhda von Meck]], the widow of a railway magnate, who had begun contact with him not long before the marriage. As well as an important friend and emotional support,<ref name="meck2">Holden, 159, 231–32.</ref> she became his patroness for the next 13 years, which allowed him to focus exclusively on composition.<ref name="meck1">Brown, ''Man and Music'', 171–72.</ref> While Tchaikovsky called her his "best friend" they agreed to never meet under any circumstances. Tchaikovsky's marital debacle may have forced him to face the full truth about his sexuality; he never blamed Antonina for the failure of their marriage.<ref>Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 120.</ref>
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| ===Years of wandering===
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| [[File:Von Meck.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A middle-aged woman wearing her hair up on her head, wearing a dark dress with a large white collar|[[Nadezhda von Meck]], Tchaikovsky's patroness and confidante from 1877 to 1890]]
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| Tchaikovsky remained abroad for a year after the disintegration of his marriage. During this time, he completed ''Eugene Onegin'', orchestrated his Fourth Symphony, and composed the [[Violin Concerto (Tchaikovsky)|Violin Concerto]].<ref>Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 159, 170, 193.</ref> He returned briefly to the Moscow Conservatory in the autumn of 1879.<ref>Brown, ''Crisis'', 297.</ref><ref group=a>Rubinstein had actually been operating under the assumption that Tchaikovsky might leave from the onset of the composer's marital crisis and was prepared for it (Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 189–90). However, his meddling in the Tchaikovsky–von Meck relationship might have contributed to the composer's actual departure. Rubinstein's actions, which soured his relations with both Tchaikovsky and von Meck, included imploring von Meck in person to end Tchaikovsky's subsidy for the composer's own good (Brown, ''Crisis'', 250; Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 188–89). Rubinstein's actions, in turn, had been spurred by Tchaikovsky's withdrawal from the Russian delegation for the [[Exposition Universelle (1878)|1878 Paris World's Fair]], a position for which Rubinstein had lobbied on the composer's behalf (Brown, ''Crisis'', 249–50; Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 180, 188–89). Rubinstein had been scheduled to conduct four concerts there; the first featured Tchaikovsky's First Piano Concerto (Wiley, ''Tchaikovsky'', 190).</ref> For the next few years, assured of a regular income from von Meck, he traveled incessantly throughout Europe and rural Russia, mainly alone, and avoided social contact whenever possible.<ref name="brmm219">Brown, ''Man and Music'', 219.</ref>
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| During this time, Tchaikovsky's foreign reputation grew and a positive reassessment of his music also took place in Russia, thanks in part to Russian novelist [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]'s call for "universal unity" with the West at the unveiling of the Pushkin Monument in Moscow in 1880. Before Dostoyevsky's speech, Tchaikovsky's music had been considered "overly dependent on the West". As Dostoyevsky's message spread throughout Russia, this stigma toward Tchaikovsky's music evaporated.<ref name="volkovsp126">Volkov, 126.</ref> An unprecedented acclaim for him even drew a cult following among the young intelligentsia of Saint Petersburg, including [[Alexandre Benois]], [[Léon Bakst]] and [[Sergei Diaghilev]].<ref>Volkov, 122–23.</ref>
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| Two musical works from this period stand out. With the [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour (Moscow)|Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] nearing completion in Moscow in 1880, the 25th anniversary of the coronation of [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] in 1881,<ref group="a">Celebration of this anniversary did not take place as [[Assassination of Alexander II|Alexander II was assassinated]] in March 1881.</ref> and the 1882 Moscow Arts and Industry Exhibition in the planning stage, [[Nikolai Rubinstein]] suggested that Tchaikovsky compose a grand commemorative piece. Tchaikovsky agreed and finished it within six weeks. He wrote to [[Nadezhda von Meck]] that this piece, the ''[[1812 Overture]]'', would be "very loud and noisy, but I wrote it with no warm feeling of love, and therefore there will probably be no artistic merits in it".<ref name="brwa119">As quoted in Brown, ''Wandering'', 119.</ref> He also warned conductor [[Eduard Nápravník]] that "I shan't be at all surprised and offended if you find that it is in a style unsuitable for symphony concerts".<ref name="brwa119" /> Nevertheless, the overture became, for many, "the piece by Tchaikovsky they know best",<ref name="brmm224">Brown, ''Man and Music'', 224.</ref> particularly well-known for the use of cannon in the scores.<ref>Aaron Green,[https://www.thoughtco.com/tchaikovskys-1812-overture-724401 "Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture"],''THOUGHTCo''.,25 March 2017</ref>
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| On 23 March 1881, Nikolai Rubinstein died in Paris. That December, Tchaikovsky started work on his [[Piano Trio (Tchaikovsky)|Piano Trio in A minor]], "dedicated to the memory of a great artist".<ref>As quoted in Brown, ''Wandering'', 151.</ref> First performed privately at the Moscow Conservatory on the first anniversary of Rubinstein's death, the piece became extremely popular during the composer's lifetime; in November 1893, it would become Tchaikovsky's own elegy at memorial concerts in Moscow and St. Petersburg.<ref>Brown, ''Wandering'', 151–52.</ref><ref group="a">The piece also fulfilled a long-standing request by von Meck for such a work, to be performed by her then-house pianist, [[Claude Debussy]] (Brown, ''New Grove (1980)'', 18:620).</ref>
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| ===Return to Russia===
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| [[File:Alexander III. Czar Of Russia Nadar.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A stocky, balding man with a beard, wearing a dark military uniform.|[[Tsar]] [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]]]]
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| In 1884, Tchaikovsky began to shed his unsociability and restlessness. That March, [[Tsar]] [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] conferred upon him the [[Order of St. Vladimir]] (fourth class), which included a title of [[Russian nobility|hereditary nobility]]<ref name="browngrove18621"/> and a personal audience with the Tsar.<ref name="wiley162"/> This was seen as a seal of official approval which advanced Tchaikovsky's social standing<ref name="browngrove18621">Brown, ''New Grove'', 18:621; Holden, 233.</ref> and might have been cemented in the composer's mind by the success of his [[Orchestral Suite No. 3 (Tchaikovsky)|Orchestral Suite No. 3]] at its January 1885 premiere in Saint Petersburg.<ref name="brmm275">Brown, ''Man and Music'', 275.</ref>
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| In 1885, Alexander III requested a new production of ''[[Eugene Onegin (opera)|Eugene Onegin]]'' at the [[Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre]] in Saint Petersburg.<ref group="a">Its only other production had been by students from the Conservatory.</ref> By having the opera staged there and not at the [[Mariinsky Theatre]], he served notice that Tchaikovsky's music was replacing [[Italian opera]] as the official imperial art. In addition, by virtue of [[Ivan Vsevolozhsky]], Director of the Imperial Theaters and a patron of the composer, Tchaikovsky was awarded a lifetime annual pension of 3,000 rubles from the Tsar. This made him the premier court composer, in practice if not in actual title.<ref>Maes, 140; Taruskin, ''Grove Opera'', 4:664.</ref>
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| [[File:Pjotr Tšaikovskin kotimuseo.jpg|thumb|alt=A blue two-story house with white trim and many windows, surrounded by birch trees.|Tchaikovsky's last home, in [[Klin, Klinsky District, Moscow Oblast|Klin]], now the [[Tchaikovsky State House-Museum]]]]
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| Despite Tchaikovsky's disdain for public life, he now participated in it as part of his increasing celebrity and out of a duty he felt to promote Russian music. He helped support his former pupil [[Sergei Taneyev]], who was now director of Moscow Conservatory, by attending student examinations and negotiating the sometimes sensitive relations among various members of the staff. He served as director of the Moscow branch of the [[Russian Musical Society]] during the 1889–1890 season. In this post, he invited many international celebrities to conduct, including [[Johannes Brahms]], [[Antonín Dvořák]] and [[Jules Massenet]].<ref name="wiley162">Wiley, ''New Grove (2001)'', 25:162.</ref>
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| During this period, Tchaikovsky also began promoting Russian music as a conductor,<ref name="wiley162"/> In January 1887, he substituted, on short notice, at the [[Bolshoi Theatre|Bolshoi Theater]] in Moscow for performances of his opera ''[[Cherevichki]]''.<ref>Holden, 261; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 197.</ref> Within a year, he was in considerable demand throughout Europe and Russia. These appearances helped him overcome life-long [[glossophobia|stage fright]] and boosted his self-assurance.<ref>Holden, 266; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 232.</ref> In 1888, Tchaikovsky led the premiere of his [[Symphony No. 5 (Tchaikovsky)|Fifth Symphony]] in Saint Petersburg, repeating the work a week later with the first performance of his tone poem ''[[Hamlet (Tchaikovsky)|Hamlet]]''. Although critics proved hostile, with [[César Cui]] calling the symphony "routine" and "meretricious", both works were received with extreme enthusiasm by audiences and Tchaikovsky, undeterred, continued to conduct the symphony in Russia and Europe.<ref>Holden, 272–73.</ref> Conducting brought him to the United States in 1891, where he led the [[New York Symphony Orchestra|New York Music Society's]] orchestra in his ''Festival Coronation March'' at the inaugural concert of [[Carnegie Hall]].<ref>Brown, ''Final'', 319–20</ref>
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| ===Belyayev circle and growing reputation===
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| {{see also|Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and the Belyayev circle}}
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| [[File:Čajkovskij ritratto seduto - Odessa (1893).gif|thumb|190px|Tchaikovsky in [[Odessa]], where he conducted five concerts in January 1893]]
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| In November 1887, Tchaikovsky arrived at Saint Petersburg in time to hear several of the [[Russian Symphony Concerts]], devoted exclusively to the music of Russian composers. One included the first complete performance of his revised First Symphony; another featured the final version of Third Symphony of [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]], with whose circle Tchaikovsky was already in touch.<ref>Brown, ''Final Years'', 90–91</ref>
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| Rimsky-Korsakov, with [[Alexander Glazunov]], [[Anatoly Lyadov]] and several other nationalistically minded composers and musicians, had formed a group known as the [[Belyayev circle]], named after a merchant and amateur musician who became an influential music patron and publisher.<ref>Maes, 173</ref> Tchaikovsky spent much time in this circle, becoming far more at ease with them than he had been with the 'Five' and increasingly confident in showcasing his music alongside theirs.<ref>Brown, ''Final'', 92.</ref> This relationship lasted until Tchaikovsky's death.<ref name="poz564">Poznansky, ''Quest'', 564.</ref><ref>Rimsky-Korsakov, 308.</ref>
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| In 1892, Tchaikovsky was voted a member of the [[Académie des Beaux-Arts]] in France, only the second Russian subject to be so honored (the first was sculptor [[Mark Antokolski]]).<ref>Poznansky, ''Quest'', 548–49.</ref> The following year, the [[University of Cambridge]] in England awarded Tchaikovsky an honorary [[Doctor of Music]] degree.<ref>Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 264.</ref>
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| ===Death===
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| {{see also|Death of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)}}
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| On 16/28 October 1893, Tchaikovsky conducted the premiere of his [[Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)|Sixth Symphony]],<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://en.tchaikovsky-research.net/pages/Symphony_No._6 | title=Symphony No. 6|website=tchaikovsky-research.net}}</ref> the ''Pathétique'', in Saint Petersburg. Nine days later, Tchaikovsky died there, aged 53. He was interred in [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]], near the graves of fellow-composers [[Alexander Borodin]], [[Mikhail Glinka]], and [[Modest Mussorgsky]]; later, [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]] and [[Mily Balakirev]] were also buried nearby.<ref>Brown, ''Final'', 487.</ref>
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| While Tchaikovsky's death has traditionally been attributed to [[cholera]] from drinking unboiled water at [[Literaturnoye Kafe (Saint Petersburg)|a local restaurant]],<ref>Brown ''Man and Music'', 430–32; Holden, 371; Warrack, ''Tchaikovsky'', 269–70.</ref> there has been much speculation that his death was suicide.<ref name="brhosu">Brown, ''Man and Music'', 431–35; Holden, 373–400.</ref> In the ''[[New Grove Dictionary of Music]]'', [[Roland John Wiley]] wrote that "The [[polemics]] over [Tchaikovsky's] death have reached an impasse ... Rumors attached to the famous die hard ... As for illness, problems of evidence offer little hope of satisfactory resolution: the state of diagnosis; the confusion of witnesses; disregard of long-term effects of smoking and alcohol. We do not know how Tchaikovsky died. We may never find out".<ref name="wi25169">Wiley, ''New Grove (2001)'', 25:169.</ref>
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| ==Music== | | ==Music== |